Best Language Exchange Apps for Learning and Practicing Languages

Introduction

The best language exchange apps connect you directly with native speakers of the language you are learning, giving you real conversation practice that textbooks and structured apps simply cannot replicate. Whether you want to practice Spanish over video chat, improve your English writing through pen pal letters, or join a live group conversation in French, there is a language exchange app designed for exactly that.

This guide covers the ten best language exchange apps available right now, how they compare, and which one fits your learning style and goals.

What Is a Language Exchange App?

A language exchange app is a platform that connects people who speak different languages so they can help each other learn and practice their target language through real conversation.

The core concept is straightforward and genuinely effective. If you are a Spanish speaker learning English, you connect with an English speaker learning Spanish. You each take turns speaking in the other person’s native language, helping each other practice in a mutually beneficial arrangement. Both people learn. Both people teach. Neither person pays the other.

These are mobile apps that run directly on your smartphone, putting a global community of language learners in your pocket. If you are completely new to apps and want foundational context before diving in, this guide on what an app is is a helpful starting point.

Why language exchange apps are valuable for language learning:

• They give you access to real native speakers for authentic conversation practice, not scripted exercises

• They are significantly cheaper than hiring a professional tutor for regular sessions

• They expose you to natural vocabulary, slang, humor, and cultural context that textbooks and structured apps often miss entirely

• They create human connection and accountability that keeps many learners more motivated than solo study

• They are available on demand without needing to schedule formal lessons in advance

The key difference between a language exchange app and a language learning app:

A language learning app like Duolingo or Babbel teaches vocabulary, grammar rules, and structured exercises. These are essential building blocks. A language exchange app connects you with real people for actual conversation, which develops a different and equally important set of skills. Both types of tools serve different purposes and work best together, not as substitutes for each other.

What to Look for in a Language Exchange App

Before choosing from the options available, these are the factors that genuinely matter for your experience.

Language Availability

Check that the app supports the specific language you are learning and has an active community of native speakers of that language. Some apps support dozens of languages while others focus on the most widely studied. An app with 50 supported languages but only a handful of active users in your target language is less useful than one with 20 languages and a thriving community in the one you need.

Communication Formats

Different apps offer text chat, voice calls, video calls, audio messages, or written letter exchanges. Consider which format suits your current comfort level. Video calling is the most immersive and the closest to real-life conversation, but text chat allows more thinking time and may be more comfortable when you are starting out.

User Base Size and Activity

A larger and more active user base means more potential partners and shorter wait times to find a match. Reading recent reviews is one of the most reliable ways to understand whether an app has an active community in your specific target language at any given time.

Matching and Search Features

The best matching systems help you find partners who speak the language you are learning, are learning your native language, share your interests, and are at a compatible proficiency level. Better matching leads to better conversations.

Safety Features

Reputable language exchange apps include reporting and blocking features that allow users to flag inappropriate behavior. In-app communication tools keep conversations within the platform, which is significantly safer than moving to external messaging apps with someone you have just met.

Free vs Paid Features

Most language exchange apps offer a free tier with core features and a paid subscription for additional matching, enhanced visibility, or premium tools. Evaluate whether the free version meets your practice needs before subscribing.

Platform Compatibility

Confirm the app is available for your specific device. If you use an Android phone, you need an Android app optimized for your device. If you use an iPhone, you need an iPhone app that works well with iOS.

The 10 Best Language Exchange Apps for Learning and Practicing Languages

The following ten apps represent the most widely used and highly regarded language exchange platforms available for Android and iPhone users. Each has been selected based on its community size, communication options, features, and value for different types of learners. Features and pricing are subject to change, so always check the official app listing for current details.

1. Tandem

What Is Tandem?

Tandem is one of the most popular language exchange apps in the world, connecting millions of language learners with native speakers for text, voice, and video practice. What sets Tandem apart from many competitors is its vetted community approach: new users go through a review process during signup designed to maintain the quality and genuine learning intent of its community.

Key Features

• Text chat, voice calls, and video calls all available within the app without switching to an external tool
• Inline translation and correction tools that allow partners to correct each other’s messages directly within the chat thread, making feedback immediate and in context
• Community matching based on target language, native language, and shared interests for more natural conversations
• Notebook feature for saving new vocabulary, corrections, and phrases encountered during exchange sessions
• Tandem Pro subscription for additional features including priority matching and profile boosts
• Community vetting during signup to reduce encounters with users who are not genuinely interested in language exchange

Free vs Paid

Tandem’s free version provides access to core chat and matching features. Tandem Pro unlocks unlimited partner matching, read receipts, and enhanced profile visibility to attract more partners.

Best For

• Learners who want a quality-vetted community with text, voice, and video conversation options in one place
• Users who want inline correction tools to receive and give language feedback during natural conversation

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone. Official website: tandem.net

2. HelloTalk

What Is HelloTalk?

HelloTalk is a widely used language exchange app that blends social media-style community features with practical language learning tools. It feels more like a language-focused social network than a simple messaging app, which suits learners who enjoy community engagement alongside one-on-one practice.

Key Features

• Text, voice, and video chat with language partners around the world
• Moments feature resembling a social media feed where users post text, audio recordings, and images for community feedback and language practice
• Built-in translation, transliteration, and pronunciation listening tools accessible directly within conversations
• Correction tool that allows partners to suggest grammatical and vocabulary edits to messages with a clear before-and-after format
• Language feed showing content posted by native speakers of your target language for passive reading and listening exposure
• Group chat rooms for practicing with multiple speakers simultaneously

Free vs Paid

HelloTalk’s free version provides access to core features with some limitations on advanced tools. A VIP subscription unlocks unlimited translation, advanced correction tools, and additional learning features.

Best For

• Learners who enjoy a social community approach to language practice with multiple ways to engage beyond one-on-one chat
• Users who want multiple built-in learning tools alongside real conversation practice in a single app

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone. Official website: hellotalk.com

3. Speaky

What Is Speaky?

Speaky is a language exchange community platform focused on connecting language learners for text and voice conversations through a clean and simple interface that is particularly accessible for people who are new to language exchange apps.

Key Features

• Partner matching based on target language, native language, and shared personal interests
• Text and voice messaging within the app
• Interest-based matching that connects users around topics they care about, making conversations feel more natural and less forced
• Active community covering a wide range of languages
• Clean and straightforward interface that does not overwhelm new users with features

Free vs Paid

Speaky offers free access to core matching and messaging features. Premium options may include additional search and matching tools. Check the official app for current details.

Best For

• Beginners looking for a simple and easy-to-navigate first language exchange experience
• Users who want interest-based matching to make starting conversations easier and more comfortable

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone and through a web browser. Official website: speaky.com

4. Italki

What Is Italki?

Italki is a hybrid platform that combines paid professional language instruction with a free language exchange community feature called Language Partners. It is the go-to choice for learners who want the flexibility of informal language exchange alongside the option to book structured lessons with qualified teachers when they want more formal guidance.

Key Features

• Language Partner feature for free language exchange conversations with native speakers, accessible to all registered users
• Access to thousands of professional teachers for paid per-lesson instruction across hundreds of languages
• Community tutors offering more affordable conversation practice sessions at lower rates than professional teachers for learners who want structured practice without formal lesson planning
• Notebook feature for writing practice in the target language with community corrections from native speakers
• Discussion boards and community features for language practice beyond one-on-one conversation

Free vs Paid

The Language Partner exchange feature is free to use. Professional teacher lessons and community tutor sessions are paid on a per-lesson basis at rates set by the individual teacher or tutor.

Best For

• Learners who want both free language exchange and the option to book affordable paid lessons within a single platform
• Serious learners who want structured professional instruction available alongside informal peer exchange practice

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone and through a web browser. Official website: italki.com

5. Paltalk

What Is Paltalk?

Paltalk is a group video and voice chat platform with language-focused chat rooms that allow users to join live group conversations in their target language. Its approach is fundamentally different from most language exchange apps, which focus on one-on-one partner matching. Paltalk is built around group rooms where multiple people practice together simultaneously.

Key Features

• Language-specific chat rooms where users can drop in and join live group conversations with multiple participants
• Video and voice chat in group settings for a more immersive conversation practice experience
• Text chat available alongside audio and video options for users who prefer a lower-pressure format
• Browse and join rooms by language or topic of interest
• Ability to host your own language practice room and invite others to join

Free vs Paid

Paltalk offers a free tier with access to basic group chat rooms. Premium subscriptions unlock additional features and higher video quality options.

Best For

• Learners who prefer group conversation practice over one-on-one exchanges
• Users who want to listen and observe live conversations in their target language before actively participating

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone and through a web browser. Official website: paltalk.com

6. Slowly

What Is Slowly?

Slowly is a genuinely unique language exchange app built around the concept of pen pal letter writing rather than instant messaging. Letters on Slowly take real time to arrive based on the physical distance between users, simulating the experience of traditional pen pal correspondence and fundamentally changing the pace and depth of language exchange.

Key Features

• Pen pal matching with language learners worldwide who share your stated interests and are learning your native language
• Letters take hours or days to arrive depending on the geographic distance between users, encouraging thoughtful and detailed writing rather than quick reactive responses
• Stamp collection system where users collect digital stamps representing different countries, adding a collectible and engaging element to the experience
• Language and interest-based matching for finding compatible pen pals
• Excellent for developing reading and writing skills with the time to think carefully about word choice and grammar before sending

Free vs Paid

Slowly’s free version covers the core pen pal features. A premium subscription unlocks additional stamps, enhanced matching options, and further features.

Best For

• Learners who want to practice writing in their target language with the time to think, compose, and review before sending
• Beginners who find real-time speaking or typing pressure intimidating and want a lower-stakes format to build confidence first
• Anyone who values thoughtful written exchange over the rapid back-and-forth of instant messaging

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone. Official website: slowly.app

7. Bilingua

What Is Bilingua?

Bilingua is a language exchange app that uses AI-assisted partner matching alongside built-in conversation prompts to help users find compatible partners and actually maintain conversations once connected. It addresses one of the most common challenges in language exchange: not knowing what to talk about or how to keep a conversation going.

Key Features

• AI-powered partner matching designed to produce more compatible and productive language exchange connections
• Built-in conversation starters and topic prompts that help users begin and sustain conversations naturally without the awkward silence of not knowing what to say next
• Text and voice messaging within the platform
• Language tips and contextual learning content integrated within the conversation experience
• Progress tracking to monitor practice activity over time

Free vs Paid

Bilingua offers a free version covering core matching and messaging features. Check the official app for current subscription details as these may have changed.

Best For

• Learners who struggle to start or maintain conversations and want built-in support through prompts and guided topics
• Users who want AI-assisted matching to find partners who are genuinely compatible in language level and interests

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone. Official website: bilingua.io

8. Conversation Exchange

What Is Conversation Exchange?

Conversation Exchange is one of the longest-established language exchange platforms and offers three distinct types of exchange: face-to-face meetups with local language partners, pen pal written correspondence, and text chat. Its large searchable database of registered users makes it particularly useful for finding partners for less commonly studied languages.

Key Features

• Three exchange formats including in-person meetups for local native speaker connections, pen pal written exchange for asynchronous practice, and real-time text chat
• Large database of language learners covering many languages and countries worldwide
• Search and filter tools to find partners by language, country, city, age, and shared interests
• Detailed profile system where users create profiles describing their language background and learning goals to attract compatible partners
• Free to use for the core search and connection features

Free vs Paid

Conversation Exchange is primarily free to use for searching and making initial connections with partners.

Best For

• Learners who want in-person language exchange meetups with local native speakers in their city or region
• Users who want a large searchable database of partners across many different languages including less commonly studied ones

Availability

Primarily web-based with mobile browser access. Official website: conversationexchange.com

9. Lingbe

What Is Lingbe?

Lingbe is a language exchange app focused specifically on real-time voice calls with native speakers, making it the most direct option available for learners whose primary goal is improving their speaking and listening skills as quickly as possible.

Key Features

• On-demand voice calls with native speakers that connect you immediately without requiring you to schedule a session in advance
• Credit-based system where users earn credits by accepting calls from learners of their own native language and spend those credits to practice speaking their target language with native speakers
• Available across multiple languages with native speakers distributed across time zones for around-the-clock availability
• Short focused call format ideal for targeted speaking practice sessions without the commitment of a long scheduled session

Free vs Paid

Lingbe uses a credit system that is built around reciprocal exchange. Users earn credits by helping others practice their native language and use those credits for their own target language practice. Additional credits can be purchased if needed.

Best For

• Learners who are specifically focused on improving speaking fluency and listening comprehension through direct real-time conversation
• Users who want on-demand speaking practice without the need to find and schedule a partner in advance

Availability

Available on Android and iPhone. Official website: lingbe.com

10. Discord Language Learning Servers

What Is Discord for Language Exchange?

Discord is a platform widely known for gaming communities that has developed a genuinely substantial ecosystem of language learning servers functioning as free, community-run language exchange spaces. These servers bring together language learners and native speakers in organized channels for text chat, live voice conversation, and resource sharing at no cost.

Key Features

• Completely free access to large and active language learning communities covering most major languages and many minor ones
• Text channels organized by language, proficiency level, topic, and activity type for structured community engagement
• Voice channels for live speaking practice with multiple community members simultaneously, similar to Paltalk but free
• Resource sharing including grammar guides, vocabulary lists, study materials, and language learning recommendations posted by community members
• Enormous variety of servers available for virtually every major language and many less commonly studied ones
• Active communities operating across all time zones making it possible to find conversation partners at almost any hour

Free vs Paid

Discord is free to use. A Discord Nitro subscription unlocks additional cosmetic and quality features but is entirely optional and not required for language exchange participation.

Best For

• Learners who want a completely free community-based language exchange experience with no subscription decisions to make
• Users who enjoy group learning environments with access to multiple native speakers rather than exclusive one-on-one pairing
• Learners of less commonly studied languages that may have smaller communities on dedicated language exchange apps but thrive on Discord

Availability

Available on Android, iPhone, desktop, and web browser. Official website: discord.com

Side-by-Side Comparison of the 10 Best Language Exchange Apps

Best Language Exchange Apps by Category

Best Language Exchange App Overall

Tandem and HelloTalk consistently rank as the top choices for most language learners due to their large and active communities, multiple communication formats, and built-in language correction and learning tools. If you are not sure where to start, either of these is a strong first choice.

Best Free Language Exchange App

HelloTalk and Discord language learning servers offer the best free experiences. Discord is completely free with no limitations tied to a paid tier. HelloTalk’s free version covers the core features most learners need for regular practice. Both are worth trying before considering a paid subscription anywhere.

Best Language Exchange App for Speaking Practice

Lingbe is the most focused option for on-demand speaking practice through immediate real-time voice calls with native speakers. Tandem and HelloTalk’s video call features are also strong choices for learners who want speaking practice within a broader language exchange relationship.

Best Language Exchange App for Writing Practice

Slowly is the clearest choice for writing practice. Its pen pal letter format encourages longer, more thoughtful written exchanges that build vocabulary, grammar confidence, and written expression skills more effectively than quick text messaging. HelloTalk’s Moments feature also supports writing practice with community feedback from native speakers.

Best Language Exchange App for Beginners

Slowly is ideal for beginners who find real-time speaking practice intimidating. The letter format removes time pressure completely and lets you think carefully before responding. Speaky’s simple and clean interface also makes it one of the most accessible starting points for first-time language exchange users.

When you are ready to download your first language exchange app, always get it from an official app store to ensure you are downloading the genuine version.

Best Language Exchange App for Group Practice

Discord language learning servers and Paltalk are the best options for group conversation practice. Discord is free and has communities for virtually every language. Paltalk offers a more structured room-based approach with video as a central feature.

How to Get the Most Out of a Language Exchange App

Downloading an app is only the beginning. These practices make a meaningful difference in how much you actually improve.

• Set a consistent practice schedule and commit to regular sessions. Even twenty minutes of daily practice produces better results over time than occasional longer sessions.
• Create a complete and honest profile including your native language, target language, current proficiency level, and genuine interests. A clear profile attracts compatible partners and sets accurate expectations from the first message.
• Structure your exchange sessions fairly by spending roughly equal time in each partner’s target language. It is easy for one language to dominate a session. Agreeing on a structure beforehand, such as thirty minutes in each language, keeps the exchange genuinely mutual.
• Use the correction tools available in apps like Tandem and HelloTalk to give and receive grammar and vocabulary feedback. Inline corrections during natural conversation are one of the most effective ways to notice and fix recurring mistakes.
• Come to sessions with topics or questions prepared in advance. Having a few conversation topics ready prevents the awkward silence of not knowing what to talk about and makes sessions more productive from the start.
• Take notes during and after sessions. Recording new vocabulary, corrected phrases, and cultural observations for later review dramatically increases what you retain from each exchange.
• Do not be afraid to make mistakes. Native speakers who are participating in language exchange understand you are learning. Making errors and learning from them in a real conversation is more effective than waiting until you feel ready to speak perfectly.
• Voice and video calls in language exchange apps require microphone and camera access. Understanding app permissions before you grant them helps you make informed decisions about what access you are allowing.
• Keep personal information private in early conversations. Use in-app tools for communication until you have built genuine trust with a partner across multiple sessions.
• If a language exchange app starts running slowly or behaving unexpectedly, clearing its app cache can resolve many common performance issues without affecting your profile or conversation history.

Language Exchange Apps vs Language Learning Apps: What Is the Difference?

Language exchange apps and language learning apps serve different and complementary purposes. Using a structured learning app to build vocabulary and grammar foundations, then practicing those foundations in real conversation through a language exchange app, is consistently more effective than relying on either type of tool alone. The two approaches reinforce each other in ways that accelerate overall progress.

Online Safety Tips for Language Exchange Apps

Language exchange apps are genuinely useful tools, but they connect you with strangers online. A few simple practices make the experience significantly safer without reducing its value.

• Use the in-app communication tools provided by the platform for all conversations. Avoid sharing your personal phone number, social media handles, or email address until you have had multiple exchanges and have built genuine trust with a specific partner.
• Be thoughtful about what you include in your public profile. Your general location for matching purposes is useful, but your specific neighborhood, workplace, daily schedule, or home address are details to keep private.
• Trust your instincts. If a conversation makes you uncomfortable or moves in a direction that feels inappropriate, use the app’s block and report features immediately. Every reputable language exchange app provides these tools precisely for this purpose.
• Be aware that not everyone on language exchange platforms is primarily interested in language learning. Report users who are not respecting community guidelines or who behave inappropriately so the platform can take action.
• Parents should be aware that language exchange apps connect users with strangers globally. Younger users should be supervised when using these platforms.
• Before creating an account on any language exchange app, review its privacy policy to understand how your profile data, conversation content, and usage information are collected and used. This guide on app data explains what app data is and how it is typically managed, which is useful context before signing up for any platform that holds personal information.

How to Download and Get Started with a Language Exchange App

Step 1: Choose Your App

Use the recommendations in this guide to select the app that best matches your learning goals, preferred communication format, and target language.

For speaking and conversation practice, start with Tandem or HelloTalk. For writing practice without speaking pressure, start with Slowly. For a completely free community experience with no subscription decisions, start with Discord language learning servers.

Step 2: Download the App

Download your chosen app from the Google Play Store for Android or the Apple App Store for iPhone. Understanding what an app store is is helpful context if you are new to finding and installing apps on your device. Always download from the official app store to ensure you are getting the genuine, verified version of the app.

Both Android apps and iPhone apps for all the language exchange platforms featured in this guide are available through their respective official stores.

Step 3: Create Your Profile

Set up a clear and honest profile including your native language, the language you are learning, your current proficiency level, and a few genuine interests. A complete profile with a real photo and clear information consistently attracts more compatible language partners than a sparse or incomplete one.

Step 4: Find Your First Language Partner

Use the app’s search or matching features to find partners who speak your target language natively and are actively learning your native language. Send a friendly and specific introduction message explaining who you are, what language you are practicing, and what kind of exchange you are looking for. Specific messages receive significantly more responses than generic ones.

Step 5: Schedule Your First Exchange Session

Agree with your partner on a time, duration, and format for your first session. Keep first sessions short, around twenty to thirty minutes, to build comfort with the format without the pressure of a long commitment. Voice or video chat for the first session, if you are comfortable, helps build rapport faster than text alone.

Step 6: Review and Practice Regularly

After each session, review your notes and new vocabulary. Schedule follow-up sessions consistently rather than waiting until you feel like practicing. Regular consistent exchange with the same partner builds a productive long-term learning relationship that improves faster than sporadic one-off sessions with different people each time.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a language exchange app?

A language exchange app is a platform that connects people who speak different languages so they can help each other learn and practice through real conversation. Each person helps the other practice their target language in a mutually beneficial exchange.

How do language exchange apps work?

You create a profile listing your native language and the language you are learning. The app matches you with users who have the reverse language combination. You then communicate through text, voice, or video chat, spending time practicing in each person’s target language.

What is the best language exchange app?

Tandem and HelloTalk are the most widely used and consistently well-regarded language exchange apps for most learners due to their large communities, multiple communication formats, and built-in language correction tools.

What is the best free language exchange app?

Discord language learning servers are completely free with no paid tier required. HelloTalk’s free version also covers the core features most learners need for regular practice without a subscription.

Are language exchange apps safe to use?

Reputable language exchange apps include blocking and reporting features. Use in-app communication tools rather than sharing personal contact details immediately, be thoughtful about what you include in your public profile, and report any behavior that makes you uncomfortable.

What is the best language exchange app for beginners?

Slowly is ideal for beginners because its pen pal letter format removes real-time speaking pressure completely. Speaky is also beginner-friendly due to its simple and clean interface.

Which language exchange app is best for speaking practice?

Lingbe is the most focused option for on-demand speaking practice through immediate real-time voice calls. Tandem and HelloTalk also offer strong video calling features for speaking practice within a broader exchange relationship.

Which language exchange app is best for writing practice?

Slowly is the clearest choice for writing practice. Its pen pal format encourages longer, more thoughtful written correspondence that builds writing skills more effectively than quick text messaging exchanges.

Do language exchange apps work for learning any language?

Most major languages are well-supported on apps like Tandem, HelloTalk, and italki. For less commonly studied languages, Discord language learning servers often have communities where smaller language groups gather that may be harder to find on dedicated exchange apps.

What is the difference between Tandem and HelloTalk?

Tandem has a vetted community signup process and focuses on clean one-on-one exchange with inline correction tools. HelloTalk adds a social media-style Moments feed and community features that make it feel more like a language-focused social network alongside its one-on-one exchange functionality.

How do I find a language partner on a language exchange app?

Create a complete profile, use the app’s search or matching features to find users with the right language combination, and send a specific introduction message explaining your language goals and what you are looking for in an exchange partner.

Can I use a language exchange app without any knowledge of the target language?

Most language exchange apps work best when you have at least basic vocabulary in your target language, enough to sustain simple exchanges. Complete beginners may benefit from spending a few weeks with a structured language learning app first before joining language exchange platforms.

What is the best language exchange app for iPhone?

Tandem and HelloTalk are both available as iPhone apps and are the top recommendations for iPhone users due to their strong iOS experiences and large active communities.

What is the best language exchange app for Android?

Tandem and HelloTalk are both available as Android apps and work well on Android devices. Speaky and Lingbe are also solid Android options depending on your preferred communication format.

How often should I practice with a language exchange app?

Consistent short sessions produce better results than infrequent long ones. Daily practice of twenty to thirty minutes is more effective for language acquisition than one long session once a week.

What should I talk about in a language exchange session?

Come prepared with two or three topic ideas. Good starting topics include your daily life, hobbies, local culture, food, travel, news, or anything your partner mentioned in their profile. Having topics ready prevents awkward pauses and makes sessions more productive.

Is Italki a language exchange app?

Italki is primarily a platform for booking paid language lessons with professional teachers and community tutors. It also includes a free Language Partner feature for peer language exchange, making it a hybrid platform that combines both paid instruction and free exchange.

Can I use Discord for language exchange?

Yes. Discord has a large and active ecosystem of language learning servers where learners and native speakers gather for text chat, voice practice, and resource sharing at no cost. Search for servers dedicated to your target language to find active communities.

DISCLAIMER

This article is intended for informational and educational purposes and provides a general overview of popular language exchange apps for everyday users and language learners. App features, pricing, subscription costs, availability, and platform compatibility may change over time. Always refer to the official app page on the App Store or Google Play and the app’s official website for the most current and accurate information. The author and publisher are not affiliated with any of the apps mentioned in this article. This article does not constitute an endorsement of any specific app or service. Language exchange apps connect users with strangers online. Always follow online safety best practices including not sharing personal contact details prematurely and using in-app communication tools rather than moving immediately to external platforms. Language learning progress depends on consistent practice, individual effort, and learning approach. No app can guarantee fluency or specific learning outcomes.